China

Western Zhou Bronze Inscriptions

金文 (Jinwen)

A gift, appointment, or victory is only secure once it is cast in bronze and dedicated to a lineage's ancestors, so the durability of the vessel itself is what makes the political or legal claim inside it permanent.

Cast into the inner surfaces of ritual bronze vessels commissioned by Zhou kings and aristocratic lineages, these inscriptions grow from a handful of characters recording a dedication to, by the later Western Zhou, lengthy texts commemorating royal appointments, land grants, legal judgments, military victories, and covenants, meant to be read aloud at ancestral sacrifices and preserved for descendants. Because they are securely dated by findspot and largely uncorrupted by later copying, unlike transmitted texts, they are the most reliable primary evidence for Western Zhou political institutions, language, and the feudal network the Zhou kings governed through, and they document the maturation of the script inherited from Shang oracle bone writing.

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